Bibliography

Work Cited

Agregaard, Barbara. Personal Interview. 3 December 2020.

A personal interview I participated in with a former biology professor at Shenandoah University who has a background in microbiology.

Aldridge, Susan. "Plague, Modern History." Infectious Diseases: In Context, edited by Brenda Wilmoth Lerner and K. Lee Lerner, vol. 2, Gale, 2008, pp. 635-639. In Context Series. Gale In Context: Opposing Viewpoints. Accessed 29 Mar. 2021.

This article has been incredibly helpful in crafting my thesis because it provides information about why certain manifestations of the plague happen which is useful information to have for the background information necessary for my paper.

Allmann Updyke, Erin and Erin Welsh. “This Podcast Will Kill You.” Ep 5 Plague Part 1: The GMOAT. From Spotify, 28 November 2017. Accessed 27 Oct. 2020.

The hosts of this podcast are disease ecologists that study vector-borne diseases and host podcasts about infectious diseases. The information they share is humorous, factually correct, and is incredibly easy to digest. They have two episodes in which they discuss the plague and the Black Death and I expect that I will utilize them as a source a great deal while crafting my thesis.

---. “This Podcast Will Kill You.” Ep 6 Plague Part 2: TGFA. From Spotify, 5 December 2017.

Archambeau, Nicole. “Healing Options during the Plague: Survivor Stories from a Fourteenth-Century Canonization Inquest.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 85, no. 4, 2011, pp. 531–559. JSTOR. Accessed 27 Oct. 2020.

This article will prove to be incredibly useful in the realm of explaining medicine during the Black Death. Like in Olson’s article, this author discusses how, in this time period, it was thought that your emotions influence your physical health and that an improvement in your disposition could help you recover from illness. Archambeau, in this article also waxes on about a holy woman named Delphine. The author discusses how the people thought that Delphine, being holy, had the ability to heal all illnesses because of her connection with God. The author also discusses another method the people used to protect themselves from the plague by using items that belonged to holy people. These objects, owned by holy people, called relics, were thought to possess saints’ healing ability because of their connection to the saint that once owned them.

Barford, Vanessa. "Why Hasn't the US Eradicated the Plague?" BBC News, BBC, 14 Oct. 2015. Accessed 4 Apr. 2021.

This article will be helpful in crafting my thesis because it provides information on why the plague will never be able to be eradicated--information that is relevant to a section of my paper. This source is also helpful because it contains an image of what the plague does to the extremities during a septicemic infection, which will be a useful visual aid when talking about the different forms the plague can take.

Benedictow, Ole J. “The Black Death: The Greatest Catastrophe Ever.” History Today, HistoryToday.com, 3 Mar. 2005. Accessed 26 Apr. 2021.

This article proved to be helpful in crafting my thesis because it includes primary accounts that give my topic, which is nearly 700 years old, a personal and first person perspective of the events.

"The Black Death." Science and Its Times, edited by Neil Schlager and Josh Lauer, vol. 2, Gale, 2001. Gale In Context: Science. Accessed 30 Mar. 2021.

This article provides a great deal of helpful information that will help in crafting my thesis. The most useful bit of information this article provided was about what contemporaries thought caused the scourge that was the Black Death.

"The Black Death." World Eras, edited by Norman J. Wilson, vol. 1: European Renaissance and Reformation, 1350-1600, Gale, 2001, pp. 435-438. Gale In Context: World History. Accessed 30 Mar. 2021.

This article provides a lot of helpful information about the history of the plague that will be helpful in crafting my thesis.

Cohn, Samuel K. “The Black Death and the Burning of Jews.” Past & Present, no. 196, 2007, pp. 3–36. JSTOR. Accessed 12 Oct. 2020.

This source will provide incredibly helpful information for describing the social and religious responses to the Black Death. This article's most important information is how the Christians treated the Jews during the Black Death. Because no one knew how to explain the great mortality, people turned to any reason that would explain the fatalities. Christians turned to one of their favorite people to blame in history: the Jews. This article provides several first-hand accounts of how blase many European chroniclers were when exposed to the eradication and torture of Jews in many communities.

--. “The Black Death: End of a Paradigm.” The American Historical Review, vol. 107, no. 3, 2002, pp. 703–738. JSTOR. Accessed 10 Sept. 2020.

This source provided a great deal of information regarding how the Black Death changed Europe during the actual pandemic and after the pandemic ended. The source discusses how the plague forced doctors of the time period to change their tactics on dealing with illnesses from that of the ancient scholars (which were not working) to methods that they developed on their own during the time period, which proved actually to work. The article also discusses how people saw the plague as God’s wrath and how the pandemic led to a great deal of violence (such as towards the Jews and how governments observed many uprisings).

Davis, Ryan S. “The Lasting Consequences of Plague in Siena.” Lasting Consequences of Plague - Insects, Disease, and History | Montana State University. Accessed 26 Apr. 2021.

This article basically condenses what I am trying to show in my thesis into one Italian city--Siena. It chronicles how the trajectory of the city-state of Sienna was altered because of the plague, and this will be helpful information to have when I am talking about how the plague changed power dynamics.

“Gabriele De' Mussi on the Plague.” Brown.edu, Italian Studies Department's Virtual Humanities Lab at Brown University, 18 Feb. 2010. Accessed 26 Apr. 2021.

This article will be useful to crafting my thesis because it provides a primary source for what contemporaries experienced and what feelings they felt; I have found that such primary sources are few and far between, so I will greatly appreciate having this when I am working on my thesis.

Gertsman, Elina. “The Dance of Death in Reval (Tallinn): The Preacher and His Audience.” Gesta, vol. 42, no. 2, 2003, pp. 143–159. JSTOR. Accessed 26 Apr. 2021.

A section of this paper is dedicated to discussing how the Black Death influenced the development of popular art styles. One of the most notable ways in which art styles of the time period were influenced by the Black Death is by the popularization of the Dance of Death in art. This article discusses the Dance of death at length, so I think it will be useful during my section of the paper dedicated to art.

Getz, Faye Marie. “Black Death and the Silver Lining: Meaning, Continuity, and Revolutionary Change in Histories of Medieval Plague.” Journal of the History of Biology, vol. 24, no. 2, 1991, pp. 265–289. JSTOR. Accessed 12 Oct. 2020.

I believe that this article will also be incredibly useful in crafting my thesis. For one, the article discusses, like many others, how the great dying triggered intense feelings of self-preservation, which led to people abandoning sick family members.

Langer, William L. “The Black Death.” Scientific American, vol. 210, no. 2, 1964, pp. 114–121. JSTOR. Accessed 10 Sept. 2020.

This source discusses how severe the pandemic was (such as how gloomy the period was and how many people died. Langer also outlines how the illness was explained. The source also discusses how the sick were handled, quarantined, and sectioned off during the pandemic to prevent spread. The article discusses how the Black Death influenced art and Literature during the pandemic. The article also discusses how the Black Death had the people of the time period throw all of their faith into the mercy of God, while also discussing the psychological and economic impact of the pandemic on Europe.

Lerner, Robert E. “The Black Death and Western European Eschatological Mentalities.” The American Historical Review, vol. 86, no. 3, 1981, pp. 533–552. Accessed 27 Oct. 2020.

In this article, Lerner makes several points that I am optimistic will be helpful in the crafting of my thesis. For one, on a scale that rates how horrible disasters are, the Black Death rates second just behind World War II. This status speaks volumes about how horrific a time the Black Death was. Another interesting point brought up in this article regarding religion during the Black Death is that several scholars during the fourteenth-century were convinced that the Black Death was leading up to the end of days and an era of peace. The point of these prophecies was likely because everyone living through the Black Death was struggling with understanding the situation, so crafting prophecies brought them a feeling of comfort.

Marshall, Louise. “Manipulating the Sacred: Image and Plague in Renaissance Italy.” Renaissance Quarterly, vol. 47, no. 3, 1994, pp. 485–532. JSTOR. Accessed 27 Oct. 2020.

The main aspect of this article that will go towards the crafting of my thesis is the information Marshall discusses how the Black Death influenced art styles. The author points out that not all of the people living through the Black Death were miserable wretches waiting for life to be taken away from them, but rather were burdened by the psychological impact of the event and were looking forward into the future optimistically, and this is reflected in the art. Marshall discusses how a plague saint-Saint Sebastian-martyred but alive as hopes for coming out of the plague on the other side hurt, but alive. There were also several artistic interpretations of the Virgin Mary protecting the people of the world from the plague.

McEvedy, Colin. “The Bubonic Plague.” Scientific American, vol. 258, no. 2, 1988, pp. 118–123. Accessed 27 Oct. 2020.

This article will be important to my research because it explains how the Yersinia pestis (the bacterium that causes the plague) bacterium functions in an easily digestible manner. While my thesis plans to focus on a particular influence of the Black Death, it will nonetheless be important to include information on what the plague bacterium is, how it functions, how it is usually transmitted, and the types of form that the plague can take (bubonic. septicemic, and pneumonic). Being a scientific journal, this article takes time to explain the plague's biology, which will be essential to include in my thesis. This article also has a section about what life was like for the people who survived the Black Death, which I plan to incorporate later on in my thesis writing process.

Medrano-Cabral, Sardis. “The Influence of Plague on Art from the Late 14th to the 17th Century.” Influence of Plague on Art - Insects, Disease, and History | Montana State University. Accessed 26 Apr. 2021.

I dedicated a block of my paper to discussing how the plague influenced art during the black death and the periods following the pandemic’s conclusion. This will be helpful information to have for this section.

Mee, Charles L., Jr. "How a mysterious disease laid low Europe's masses." Smithsonian, vol. 20, no. 11, Feb. 1990, p. 66+. Gale In Context: World History. Accessed 16 Mar. 2021.

This article provides a great deal of helpful information about the history of the plague and the Black Death. While the information within will not be hugely important for any one part of my thesis, it will serve to substantiate any claims I make that I do not have as many sources about. The article also contains several facets of the plague that other sources I have did not discuss.

Noymer, Andrew. “Contesting the Cause and Severity of the Black Death: A Review Essay.” Population and Development Review, vol. 33, no. 3, 2007, pp. 616–627. JSTOR. Accessed 12 Oct. 2020.

While this article is largely a response to another work on the Black Death, this article nonetheless offers a great deal of valuable information. For one, the article explains in an easily understandable manner how the plague spreads from rodents to humans via fleas taking blood meals from infected rats, getting infected, and then barfing plague bacteria into a human host. The article also explains how plague outbreaks start via animals living among humans getting infected. The article also explains the three types of plague and how the plague bacterium that caused the Black Death has differences from modern instances of plague. The author also includes that the Black Death is believed to cause the plague because plague graves from around the time of Black Death were discovered that had traces of plague bacteria in the dead’s tooth pulp. Finally, the author states that the origins of the Black Death are not certain and the generally accepted theory that the pestilence originated in the Golden Horde is not definite.

Pamuk, Şevket. “The Black Death and the Origins of the 'Great Divergence' across Europe, 1300-1600.” European Review of Economic History, vol. 11, no. 3, 2007, pp. 289–317. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41378468. Accessed 8 Mar. 2021.

This article provided helpful information that I can use in crafting my thesis. The article provides helpful information on the economic ramifications of the Black Death. Since I plan to dedicate a section of my thesis to how the Black Death influenced the economy, I think that this article will contribute a great amount of information that will be useful to my thesis. Though the article is dense and a bit hard to follow, the information within is nonetheless good information, and with careful reading, the information will be great to have for my paper.

“Petrarch And The Plague.” Decameron Web. Italian Studies Department's Virtual Humanities Lab at Brown University. 18 Feb. 2010. Accessed 26 Apr. 2021.

This article is helpful because it includes a primary source that I think is a great way to start my thesis’s introduction. I have not had much luck finding reliable primary sources, so discovering this article containing the lamentations of Petrarch is helpful. While I can wax on for pages about how awful the plague was, I would never be able to describe it as well as a learned poet that actually lived through the scourge.

Shipman, Pat. “Perspective: The Bright Side of the Black Death.” American Scientist, vol. 102, no. 6, 2014, pp. 410–413. JSTOR. Accessed 10 Sept. 2020.

This source discusses how the Black Death spread through Europe due to the Mongols. The source also discusses how scholars know that the Black Death was caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium rather than a different disease. The article brings up how the Black Death was the disease which created the concept of biological warfare. This article, too, discusses how the Black Death influenced the economic climate of Europe. The article also discusses how the Black Death may have triggered natural selection in humans, as so many people were dying from the plague, that the people who were surviving and reproducing were those who were genetically predisposed to be resistant to the plague.

Robbins, Helen. “A Comparison of the Effects of the Black Death on the Economic Organization of France and England.” Journal of Political Economy, vol. 36, no. 4, 1928, pp. 447–479. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1822539. Accessed 8 Mar. 2021.

This article will be very helpful in talking about the economic ramifications of the plague. Since I plan to discuss the economic ramifications of the plague, this article will prove to be incredibly helpful. The article, though a bit dense, goes into great detail about how the Black Death influenced the economy of medieval Europe (concentrating on Britain and France) along with a handful of other economic impacts, and all of this information will prove to be very useful for the economics section of the paper.

Roos, Anna Marie E. "Plague, Early History." Infectious Diseases: In Context, edited by Brenda Wilmoth Lerner and K. Lee Lerner, vol. 2, Gale, 2008, pp. 627-634. In Context Series. Gale In Context: Opposing Viewpoints. Accessed 29 Mar. 2021.

This article provides a great deal of helpful information about the history of the plague that will help substantiate what I am saying.

Scerri, Mariella. "Faith and Patron Saints During the Black Death in Europe." Hekint.org. Hektoen International. 2 June 2020. Accessed 27 Apr. 2021

This article is useful for my thesis because it provides a large amount of information on plague saints that is easy to digest. I particularly liked that this article has information on Saint Roch in it, as the other articles on plague saints I have found are relatively lacking on him outside of the fact that he was a plague saint that was worshipped.

Slack, Paul. “Responses to Plague in Early Modern Europe: The Implications of Public Health.” Social Research, vol. 55, no. 3, 1988, pp. 433–453. JSTOR. Accessed 12 Oct. 2020.

This article is going to be incredibly useful in crafting my thesis. For one, the article provides a great deal of information on how the Black Death influenced medicine, such as how the plague forced Europeans to take safety precautions such as isolating the sick and fumigating houses in order to avoid getting sick. Slack also noted that the Black Death caused such a great number of fatalities that was never replicated in future plague outbreaks. The article also notes why the Europeans living during the Black Death responded in the way that they did. Furthermore, the article discusses how the Christians of this time period naturally responded by saying the plague was God punishing the people of the world for being immoral. Slack also explains that people were so terrified of the Black Death that it was common for family members to desert each other if one contracted the plague.

Thompson, James Westfall. “The Aftermath of the Black Death and the Aftermath of the Great War.” American Journal of Sociology, vol. 26, no. 5, 1921, pp. 565–572. JSTOR. Accessed 23 Feb. 2021.

This article will be helpful in crafting my thesis. The article discusses the aftermath and effects The Black Death had on Europe and compares them to the time period the article was written in the 1920s. The helpful information that this article provided me is that the plague changed Europe in the sense that traditional morals were ignored and the people of the pandemic thought that they were being punished by a wrathful God. Itt also gave me the information that as a result of the plague, many turned away from traditional religion and joined movements such as the flagellant movements. Because I touch on the flagellant movement in my paper and the plague’s influence on religion, this is important information to know.

Thrupp, Sylvia L. “Plague Effects in Medieval Europe: Demographic Effects of Plague: A Comment on J. C. Russell's Views.” Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 8, no. 4, 1966, pp. 474–483. JSTOR. Accessed 12 Oct. 2020.

This article provides important information in helping me better understand how the Black Death influenced Europe. For one, the article points out that the plague seemed to kill indiscriminately in regards to age and gender. The doctors of the time period made the people living through plague outbreaks reliant on them. Cities oftentime struggled handing outbreaks of the plague because they liked to boast that their city was clean and healthy, and quarantines for the sick took a long time to set up correctly and understand. There was also the problem in outbreaks that city governments usually did not listen to medical professionals’s advice. The article also discusses how the Black crippled the economy for upwards to a hundred years after the Black Death, and how the Black Death continued to be a thorn in the side of peasant workers for years to come and lower their work efficiency, therefore affecting the economy.

Walsh, Bryan. “Study Shows That Survivors of the Medieval Plague Were Healthier.” Time.com, Time Magazine, 7 May 2014. Accessed 26 Apr. 2021.

This article provides information about how the pandemic affected the psyches of those that lived through it, and I would like to have this information for when I am discussing how the Black Death affected the people of Europe during the pandemic.

Wodrich, Andrew. "Plague Epidemics and the Evolution of Language in England." Hekint.org, Hektoen International, 6 July 2020. Accessed 20 Apr. 2021.

A section of my paper is dedicated to how the plague affected the linguistic makeup of Europe, particularly in England. This article contains information on how French was eliminated from being the language of the elite in England, as nearly all French speakers in England perished during the pandemic, leaving English as the primary language of the nation. At the time, English was only the language of the lower classes.

Wyman, Walter. “The Black Plague.” The North American Review, vol. 164, no. 485, 1897, pp. 441–452. JSTOR. Accessed 26 Apr. 2021.

This article provides a detailed history of the plague that provides great information for describing the history of the plague. The article also provides information about the biology of the plague and how the bacterium functions, which will be valuable information to have when explaining the biology of the plague.

Zimmermann, Carol. “During Plague, Catholic Church Called on Saints for Help, Healing.” americamagazine.org, America Magazine, 9 Apr. 2020. Accessed 26 Apr. 2021.

This article provides information about the plague saint Sebastian. Because a section of my paper is dedicated to discussing how the plague influenced religion and one of the forms this influence manifested is via plague saints, I believe this article will be very helpful in crafting my thesis.

Image Bibliography:

Page: Title Page URL: https://www.historytoday.com/archive/black-death-greatest-catastrophe-ever

Page: 4 URL: https://www.historytoday.com/archive/black-death-greatest-catastrophe-ever

Page: 7 URL: https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/san-franciscos-plague-years

Page: 9 URL: https://www.montana.edu/historybug/plague.html

Page: 9 URL: https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-34398099

Page: 9 URL: https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/1203947/plague-news-China-pneumonic-plague-cases-plague-symptoms-black-death

Page: 22 URL: https://www.history.com/news/quarantine-black-death-medieval

Page: 23 URL: https://momentmag.com/why-were-jews-blamed-for-the-black-death/

Page: 24 URL: https://www.britannica.com/topic/flagellants

Page: 26 URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2863019?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents

Page: 29 URL: https://publicdomainreview.org/collection/hans-holbeins-dance-of-death-1523-5

Page: 30 URL: https://hekint.org/2020/07/06/plague-epidemics-and-the-evolution-of-language-in-england/

Page: 32 URL: https://theconversation.com/what-can-the-black-death-tell-us-about-the-global-economic-consequences-of-a-pandemic-132793